جاليليو جاليلي + Galileo Galilei
جاليليو جاليلي بالعربية:عالِم فلكي وفيلسوف وفيزيائي إيطالي، ولد في بيزا في إيطاليا. أبوه هو فينسينزو جاليلي وأمه هي جوليا دي كوزيمو أماناتي وأنجب من مارينا جامبا ثلاثة أطفال دون زواج هم فيرجينا (لقبت بعد ذلك بالأخت ماريا) ولدت عام 1600 و ماتت عام 1634، فينسنزو ولد عام 1606 ومات عام 1646، ليفيا (ولقبت بعد ذلك بالأخت أركنجيلا) ولدت عام 1601 وماتت عام 1649. نشر نظرية كوبرنيكوس ودافع عنها بقوة على أسس فيزيائية، فقام أولا بإثبات خطأ نظرية أرسطو حول الحركة، وقام بذلك عن طريق الملاحظة والتجربة.
كان جاليليو ماهرا في الرياضيات والموسيقى، لكنه كان رقيق الحال، لذلك اعتزم ألا يعمل ابنه في أي عمل من الأعمال التي لا تكسب صاحبها مالا، ومن ثم أرسله إلى جامعة بيزا لدراسة الطب. ووصل جاليليو وهو ما يزال طالبا لتحقيق أول مكتشفاته عندما أثبت أنه لاعلاقة بين حركات الخطار (البندول) وبين المسافة التي يقطعها في تأرجحه، سواء طالت المسافة أو قصرت. واهتم بعد ذلك بدراسة الهندسة إلى جانب الطب، وبرع فيها حتى بدأ يلقي المحاضرات على الطلاب بعد ثلاث سنوات فقط. وفي ذلك الوقت كان العلماء يظنون أنه لو ألقي من ارتفاع ما بجسمين مختلفي الوزن فإن الجسم الأثقل وزنا يصل إلى الأرض قبل الآخر. لكن جاليليو أثبت بالنظرية الرياضية خطأ هذا الاعتقاد، ثم اعتلى برج بيزا وألقى بجسمين مختلفي الوزن فاصطدما بالأرض معا في نفس اللحظة. وأوضح أيضا خطأ عدة نظريات رياضية أخرى. وانتقل جاليليو بعد ذلك إلى مدينة بادوفا بجمهورية البندقية و في جامعتها بدأ يلقي محاضراته في الرياضيات، وكان في هذا الوقت قد نال نصيبه من الشهرة. وفي بادوا اخترع أول محرار (ترمومتر) هندسي.
كان ممن اتبع طرق التجريبية في البحوث العلمية. وبحث في الحركة النسبية، وقوانين سقوط الأجسام، وحركة الجسم على المستوى المائل والحركة عند رمي شيء في زاوية مع الأفق واستخدام البندول في قياس الزمن.
في سنة 1609 بدأ جاليليو يصنع منظاراً بوضع عدستين في طرفي إنبوبة من الرصاص، وكان أفضل بكثير من الذي صنعه ليبرشي. بعد ذلك انكب جاليليو على منظاره يحسن من صناعته، وراح يبيع ماينتج منه بيديه، وصنع المئات وأرسلها إلى مختلف بلاد أوروبا، وكان لنجاحه صداه في جمهورية البندقية، ففي تلك الأيام كان كل فرد يعتقد أن الأرض مركز الكون، وأن الشمس وغيرها من الكواكب تدور حولها، وكان الطريق اللبني يعتبر حزمة من الضوء في السماء، وأن القمر مسطح الشكل. ولكن عندما نظر جاليليو من خلال عدسات منظاره لم يجد شيئا من هذا كله صحيحا، فقد رأى أن في القمر مرتفعات، وأن الشمس تنتقل على محاورها، وأن كوكب المشتري له أقمار، مثلها مثل القمر الذي يدور حول الأرض، ورأى أن الطريق اللبني ليس مجرد سحابة من الضوء إنما هو يتكون من عدد لا حصر له من النجوم المنفصلة والسديم.
وكتب كتابا تحدث فيه عن ملاحظاته ونظرياته، وقال أنها تثبت الأرض كوكب صغير يدور حول الشمس مع غيره من الكواكب، وشكا بعض أعدائه إلى سلطات الكنيسة الكاثوليكية بأن بعض بيانات جاليليو تتعارض مع أفكار وتقارير الكتاب المقدس، وذهب جاليليو إلى روما للدفاع عن نفسه وتمكن بمهارته من الإفلات من العقاب لكنه انصاع لأمر الكنيسة بعدم العودة إلى كتابة هذه الأفكار مرة أخرى، وظل ملتزما بوعده إلى حين، لكنه كتب بعد ذلك في كتاب آخر بعد ست عشرة سنة نفس الأفكار، وأضاف أنها تتعارض مع شيء مما في الكتاب المقدس. وفي هذه المرة أرغمته الكنيسة على أن يقرر علانية أن الأرض لاتتحرك على الإطلاق وأنها ثابتة كما يقول علماء عصره. ولم يهتم جاليليو لهذا التقرير العلني.
ظل غاليلو منفياً في منزله حتى مماته في 8 يونيو 1642، وتم دفن جثمانه في فلورانسا. و قدمت الكنيسة اعتذاراً لغاليلو عام 1983
Galileo was born in Pisa (then part of the Duchy of Florence), Italy, the first of six children of Vincenzo Galilei, a famous lutenist and music theorist, and Giulia Ammannati. Four of their six children survived infancy, and the youngest Michelangelo (or Michelagnolo) became a noted lutenist and composer.
Galileo's full name was Galileo di Vincenzo Bonaiuti de' Galilei. At the age of 8, his family moved to Florence, but he was left with Jacopo Borghini for two years. He then was educated in the Camaldolese Monastery at Vallombrosa, 35 km southeast of Florence.Although he seriously considered the priesthood as a young man, he enrolled for a medical degree at the University of Pisa at his father's urging. He did not complete this degree, but instead studied mathematics. In 1589, he was appointed to the chair of mathematics in Pisa. In 1591 his father died and he was entrusted with the care of his younger brother Michelagnolo. In 1592, he moved to the University of Padua, teaching geometry, mechanics, and astronomy until 1610. During this period Galileo made significant discoveries in both pure science (for example, kinematics of motion, and astronomy) and applied science (for example, strength of materials, improvement of the telescope). His multiple interests included the study of astrology, which in pre-modern disciplinary practice was seen as correlated to the studies of mathematics and astronomy.
Although a genuinely pious Roman Catholic, Galileo fathered three children out of wedlock with Marina Gamba. They had two daughters, Virginia in 1600 and Livia in 1601, and one son, Vincenzo, in 1606. Because of their illegitimate birth, their father considered the girls unmarriageable. Their only worthy alternative was the religious life. Both girls were sent to the convent of San Matteo in Arcetri and remained there for the rest of their lives. Virginia took the name Maria Celeste upon entering the convent. She died on 2 April 1634, and is buried with Galileo at the Basilica di Santa Croce di Firenze. Livia took the name Sister Arcangela and was ill for most of her life. Vincenzo was later legitimized and married Sestilia Bocchineri.
In 1610 Galileo published an account of his telescopic observations of the moons of Jupiter, using this observation to argue in favour of the sun-centered, Copernican theory of the universe against the dominant earth-centered Ptolemaic and Aristotelian theories. The next year Galileo visited Rome in order to demonstrate his telescope to the influential philosophers and mathematicians of the Jesuit Collegio Romano, and to let them see with their own eyes the reality of the four moons of Jupiter. While in Rome he was also made a member of the Accademia dei Lincei.
In 1612, opposition arose to the Sun-centered theory of the universe which Galileo supported. In 1614, from the pulpit of the Basilica of Santa Maria Novella, Father Tommaso Caccini (1574–1648) denounced Galileo's opinions on the motion of the Earth, judging them dangerous and close to heresy. Galileo went to Rome to defend himself against these accusations, but, in 1616, Cardinal Roberto Bellarmino personally handed Galileo an admonition enjoining him neither to advocate nor teach Copernican astronomy. During 1621 and 1622 Galileo wrote his first book, The Assayer (Il Saggiatore), which was approved and published in 1623. In 1630, he returned to Rome to apply for a license to print the Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems, published in Florence in 1632. In October of that year, however, he was ordered to appear before the Holy Office in Rome.
Following a papal trial in which he was found vehemently suspect of heresy, Galileo was placed under house arrest and his movements restricted by the Pope. From 1634 onward he stayed at his country house at Arcetri, outside of Florence. He went completely blind in 1638 and was suffering from a painful hernia and insomnia, so he was permitted to travel to Florence for medical advice. He continued to receive visitors until 1642, when, after suffering fever and heart palpitations, he died.
Galileo made original contributions to the science of motion through an innovative combination of experiment and mathematics. More typical of science at the time were the qualitative studies of William Gilbert, on magnetism and electricity. Galileo's father, Vincenzo Galilei, a lutenist and music theorist, had performed experiments establishing perhaps the oldest known non-linear relation in physics: for a stretched string, the pitch varies as the square root of the tension. These observations lay within the framework of the Pythagorean tradition of music, well-known to instrument makers, which included the fact that subdividing a string by a whole number produces a harmonious scale. Thus, a limited amount of mathematics had long related music and physical science, and young Galileo could see his own father's observations expand on that tradition.
Galileo is perhaps the first to clearly state that the laws of nature are mathematical. In The Assayer he wrote "Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe ... It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are triangles, circles, and other geometric figures; ... ." His mathematical analyses are a further development of a tradition employed by late scholastic natural philosophers, which Galileo learned when he studied philosophy. Although he tried to remain loyal to the Catholic Church, his adherence to experimental results, and their most honest interpretation, led to a rejection of blind allegiance to authority, both philosophical and religious, in matters of science. In broader terms, this aided the separation of science from both philosophy and religion; a major development in human thought.
By the standards of his time, Galileo was often willing to change his views in accordance with observation. Modern philosopher of science Paul Feyerabend also noted the supposedly improper aspects of Galileo's methodology, but he argued that Galileo's methods could be justified retroactively by their results. The bulk of Feyerabend's major work, Against Method (1975), was devoted to an analysis of Galileo, using his astronomical research as a case study to support Feyerabend's own anarchistic theory of scientific method. As he put it: 'Aristotelians ... demanded strong empirical support while the Galileans were content with far-reaching, unsupported and partially refuted theories. I do not criticize them for that; on the contrary, I favour Niels Bohr's "this is not crazy enough."' In order to perform his experiments, Galileo had to set up standards of length and time, so that measurements made on different days and in different laboratories could be compared in a reproducible fashion.
Galileo showed a remarkably modern appreciation for the proper relationship between mathematics, theoretical physics, and experimental physics. He understood the parabola, both in terms of conic sections and in terms of the ordinate (y) varying as the square of the abscissa (x). Galilei further asserted that the parabola was the theoretically ideal trajectory of a uniformly accelerated projectile in the absence of friction and other disturbances. He conceded that there are limits to the validity of this theory, noting on theoretical grounds that a projectile trajectory of a size comparable to that of the Earth could not possibly be a parabola, but he nevertheless maintained that for distances up to the range of the artillery of his day, the deviation of a projectile's trajectory from a parabola would only be very slight. Thirdly, he recognized that his experimental data would never agree exactly with any theoretical or mathematical form, because of the imprecision of measurement, irreducible friction, and other factors.
According to Stephen Hawking, Galileo probably bears more of the responsibility for the birth of modern science than anybody else, and Albert Einstein called him the father of modern science.
